Ambiguity Definition

Ambiguity or fallacy of ambiguity is a word, phrase, or statement which contains more than one meaning.
Ambiguous words or statements lead to vagueness and confusion, and shape the basis for instances of unintentional humor. For instance, it is ambiguous to say “I rode a black horse in red pajamas,” because it may lead us to think the horse was wearing red pajamas. The sentence becomes clear when it is restructured “Wearing red pajamas, I rode a black horse.”

Similarly, same words with different meanings can cause ambiguity e.g. “John took off his trousers by the bank.” It is funny if we confuse one meaning of “bank” which is a building, to another meaning, being “an edge of a river”. Context usually resolves any ambiguity in such cases.

Common Ambiguity Examples

Below are some common examples of ambiguity:

• A good life depends on a liver – Liver may be an organ or simply a living person.
• Foreigners are hunting dogs – It is unclear whether dogs were being hunted or foreigners are being spoken of as dogs.
• Each of us saw her duck – It is not clear whether the word “duck” refers to an action of ducking or a duck that is a bird.
• The passerby helps dog bite victim – Is the passerby helping a dog bite someone? Or is he helping a person bitten by a dog? It’s not clear.

Examples of Ambiguity in Literature

Although ambiguity is considered a flaw in writing, many writers use this technique to allow readers to understand their works in a variety of ways, giving them depth and complexity. Let us analyze some ambiguity examples in literature.

Example #1

Read the following excerpt from “The Catcher in the Rye” by J. D. Salinger:

“I ran all the way to the main gate, and then I waited a second till I got my breath. I have no wind, if you want to know the truth. I’m quite a heavy smoker, for one thing—that is, I used to be. They made me cut it out. Another thing, I grew six and a half inches last year. That’s also how I practically got t.b. and came out here for all these goddam checkups and stuff. I’m pretty healthy though.”

The words “they” and “here” used by the speaker are ambiguous. But the readers are allowed to presume from the context that “they” might be the professionals helping out Holden and “here” might be a rehabilitation center.

Example #2

“The Sick Rose”, a short lyric written by William Blake, is full of ambiguities:

“O Rose thou art sick.
The invisible worm,
That flies in the night
In the howling storm:
Has found out thy bed
Of crimson joy;
And his dark secret love
Does thy life destroy”

Many of the words in the above lines show ambiguity. We cannot say for sure what “crimson bed of joy” means; neither can we be exact about the interpretation of “dark secret love”. The ambiguous nature of such phrases allows readers to explore for deeper meanings of the poem.
Some of those who have analyzed this poem believe that “Has found out thy bed, Of crimson joy” refers to making love.

Example #3

On a larger scale, ambiguity may develop in a character or in an entire story. For instance, Hamlet is a morally ambiguous character. He kills to avenge his father’s murder. He is good because he wants to protect his mother but he is bad because he is willing to kill whom he must to achieve this end.
The ambiguity in Hamlet’s character is seen when he is hurt by the death of “Ophelia” which is his personal loss, but he does not appreciate the effect that his actions are going to have on others.

Example #4

We find ambiguity in the first line of Keats’s “Ode to a Grecian Urn”:

“Thou still unravish’d bride of quietness,”

The use of word “still” is ambiguous in nature. “Still” here may mean “an unmoving object” or it may be interpreted as “yet unchanged”.

Examples of ambiguity in a sentence

1. A third factor amping your desire to speed things along: Despite the euphoria of those first kisses and dates, the initial stages of infatuation can be incredibly unsettling. “You aren't sure yet where you stand with your mate, so you're anxious to shake the ambiguity,” explains Regan. —Molly Triffin et al., Cosmopolitan, January 2008
2. The troubles in the Empire at the turn of the seventeenth century have often been laid at the door of the Peace of Augsburg. While it is true that the 1555 agreement papered over some unsolvable problems and contained ambiguities and loopholes, it had been conceived as a pragmatic compromise, and it did succeed in preserving the peace in Germany for one generation. —Alison D. Anderson, On the Verge of War, 1999
3. Her letters and diaries describe her own feelings of insecurity and worries about her possible fate if she could no longer work, and they also tell us a great deal about the ambiguity of her position within the society in which she lived, and her determination to defend and maintain her own status. —Joanna Martin, A Governess In the Age of Jane Austen, 1998
4. Above the level of molecular biology, the notion of “gene” has become increasingly complex. The chapter in which Ridley addresses the ambiguities of this slippery word is an expository tour de force. He considers seven possible meanings of gene as used in different contexts: a unit of heredity; an interchangeable part of evolution; a recipe for a metabolic product; … a development switch; a unit of selection; and a unit of instinct. —Raymond Tallis, Prospect, September 2003
5. the ambiguities in his answers
6. <the ambiguity of the clairvoyant's messages from the deceased allowed the grieving relatives to interpret them however they wished>

Function of Ambiguity

Ambiguity in literature serves the purpose of lending a deeper meaning to a literary work. By introducing ambiguity in their works, writers give liberty to the readers to use their imagination to explore meanings. This active participation of the readers involves them in the prose or poetry they read.

Denotation Definition

Denotation is generally defined as literal or dictionary meanings of a word in contrast to its connotative or associated meanings.
Let us try to understand this term with the help of an example. If you search for meaning of the word “dove” in a dictionary, you will see that its meaning is “a type of pigeon, a wild and domesticated bird having a heavy body and short legs.” In literature, however, you frequently see “dove” referred to as a symbol of peace.

Denotation Examples in Literature

Let us analyze a few examples from literature:
1. An example of denotation literary term can be found in the poetic work of Robert Frost’s “Mending Wall”:

“And on a day we meet to walk the line
And set the wall between us once again.
We keep the wall between us as we go.
To each the boulders that have fallen to each.”

In the above lines, the word “wall” is used to suggest a physical boundary which is its denotative meaning but it also implies the idea of “emotional barrier”.
2. William Wordsworth in his poem “A Slumber Did My Spirit Seal” says:

“A slumber did my spirit seal;
I had no human fears–
She seemed a thing that could not feel
The touch of earthly years.
No motion has she now, no force;
She neither hears nor sees;
Roll’d round in earth’s diurnal course
With rocks, and stones, and trees.”

Wordsworth makes a contrast between a living girl and a dead girl in the first and second stanza respectively. We are familiar to the meanings of the words used in the last line of the second stanza; rock, stone and tree but the poet uses them connotatively where rock and stone imply cold and inanimate object and the tree suggests dirt and thus the burial of that dead girl.
3. Look at the following lines from Shakespeare’s play “As you Like It”:

“All the world’s a stage,
And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances;
And one man in his time plays many parts,”

Shakespeare moves away from the denotative meanings of words in the above lines in order to give a symbolic sense to a few words. “a stage” symbolizes the world, “players” suggests human beings and “parts” implies different stages of their lives.
4. Sara Teasdale in her poem “Wild Asters” develops a number of striking symbols by deviating from the denotative meanings of the words:

“In the spring, I asked the daisies
If his words were true,
And the clever, clear-eyed daisies
Always knew.
Now the fields are brown and barren,
Bitter autumn blows,
And of all the stupid asters
Not one knows.”

In the above lines, “spring” and “daisies” are symbol of youth. “Brown and barren” are a symbol of transition from the youth to the old age. Moreover, “Bitter Autumn” symbolizes death.

Function of Denotation

Readers are familiar with denotations of words but denotations are generally restricted meanings. Writers, therefore, deviate from the denotative meanings of words to create fresh ideas and images that add deeper levels of meanings to common and ordinary words. Readers find it convenient to grasp the connotative meanings of words because of the fact that they are familiar to their literal meanings.

Difference between Denotation and connotation

The terms, denotation and connotation, are used to convey and distinguish between two different kinds of meanings or extensions of a word. A denotation is the strict, literal, definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color. The connotation of a word or term adds elements of emotion, attitude, or color. The meaning or use of denotation and connotation depends partly on the field of study.

The meaning of denotation and connotation

• In media-studies terminology, denotation is the first level of analysis: What the audience can visually see on a page. Denotation often refers to something literal, and avoids being a metaphor. Here it is usually coupled with connotation, which is the second level of analysis, being what the denotation represents.

• In logic, linguistics, and semiotics, a denotation of a word or phrase is a part of its meaning; however, several parts of meaning may take this name, depending on the contrast being drawn:
• Denotation and connotation are either
  • in basic semantics and literary theory, the literal and figurative meanings of a word, or,
  • in philosophy, logic and parts of linguistics, the extension and intension of a word

• Denotation can be synonymous with reference, and connotation with sense, in the sense and reference distinction in philosophy of language.

• In Computer science, denotational semantics is contrasted with operational semantics.

• In Semiotics, denotation also has its own meaning.

In logic and semantics, denotational always attracts the extension, meaning "in the pair," but the other element genuinely varies.
The distinction between connotation and denotation corresponds roughly to Gottlob Frege's ground-breaking and much-studied distinction between Sinn (sense) and Bedeutung (reference).
Bertrand Russell, in 1905, published a seminal article on the topic of denotation, entitled "On Denoting."
Denotation often links with symbolism, as the denotation of a particular media text often represents something further; a hidden meaning (or an enigma code) is often hidden in a media text.

Examples

In order to understand fully the difference between denotation and connotation in media studies and semiotics, it is helpful to examine some examples:

The denotation of this example is a red rose with a green stem. The connotation is that is a symbol of passion and love—this is what the rose represents.

The denotation is a brown cross. The connotation is a symbol of religion, according to the media connotation. To be more specific, this is a symbol of Christianity.

The denotation is a representation of a cartoon heart. The connotation is a symbol of love and affection, not in the way of a rose, but a symbol of true love.

Definition of Connotation

A connotation is a subjective cultural and/or emotional coloration in addition to the explicit or denotative meaning of any specific word or phrase in a language.

Usage

Within contemporary society, connotation branches into a culmination of different meanings. These could include the contrast of a word or phrase with its primary, literal meaning (known as a denotation), with what that word or phrase specifically denotes. The connotation essentially relates to how anything may be associated with a word or phrase, for example, an implied value judgment or feelings.

• A stubborn person may be described as being either "strong-willed" or "pig-headed." Although these have the same literal meaning (that is, stubborn), strong-willed connotes admiration for someone's convictions, while pig-headed connotes frustration in dealing with someone. Likewise, "used car" and "previously owned car" have the same literal meaning, but many dealerships prefer the latter, since it is thought to have fewer negative connotations.
• It is often useful to avoid words with strong connotations (especially disparaging ones) when striving to achieve a neutral point of view. A desire for more positive connotations, or fewer negative ones, is one of the main reasons for using euphemisms. (Although, not all theories of linguistic meaning honor the distinction between literal meaning and connotation).

Logic

In logic and in some branches of semantics, connotation is more or less synonymous with intension. Connotation is often contrasted with denotation, which is more or less synonymous with extension. A word's extension is the collection of things it refers to; its intension is what it implies about the things it is used to refer to. So, the denotation or extension of "dog" is just the collection of all the dogs that exist. The connotation or intension of "dog" is (something like) "four-legged canine carnivore." Alternatively, the connotation of the word may be thought of as the set of all its possible referents (as opposed to merely the actual ones). So saying, "You are a dog," would imply that the subject was ugly or aggressive rather than a literal canine.

As nouns the difference between implication and connotation is that implication is (uncountable) the act of implicating while connotation is a meaning of a word or phrase that is suggested or implied, as opposed to a denotation, or literal meaning a characteristic of words or phrases, or of the contexts that words and phrases are used in.  implication English Noun (en-noun) (uncountable) The act of implicating. (uncountable) The state of being implicated. (countable) An implying, or that which is implied, but not expressed; an inference, or something which may fairly be understood, though not expressed in words. (logic) (countable ) The connective in propositional calculus that, when joining two predicates A and B in that order, has the meaning "if A is true, then B is true". Derived terms * material implication * strict implication Related terms * implicate * implicative * implicit * implicitness * imply  connotation English Noun (en-noun) A meaning of a word or phrase that is suggested or implied, as opposed to a denotation, or literal meaning. A characteristic of words or phrases, or of the contexts that words and phrases are used in. The connotations of the phrase "you are a dog" are that you are physically unattractive or morally reprehensible, not that you are a canine. A technical term in logic used by J. S. Mill and later logicians to refer to the attribute or aggregate of attributes connoted by a term, and contrasted with denotation . The two expressions "the morning star" and "the evening star" have different connotations but the same denotation (i.e. the planet Venus). Denotation is the literal meaning of a word as defined by its context. Connotation is the suggestion or implication represented by a word which alludes to its social context. The most common example to use is the red rose. Red is the denotation of a colour, and rose is the denotation of a flower. Together they present a description of a flower of a particular colour: a red rose. The connotation of red rose is a symbol for love. The words red and rose simply describe a noun in terms of its colour and define a type of flower. Social convention has meant that the red rose as an idea represents or symbolises love.

What is Morphology and Syntax?

Morphology

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There are two basic divisions in morphology :

   (1)   lexical morphology   (word formation)
   (2)   inflectional morphology   (grammar, conjugation/declination)

•   Morphology is concerned with the study of word forms. A word is best defined in terms of internal stability (is it further divisible?) and external mobility (can it be moved to a different position in a sentence?).

•   A morpheme is the smallest unit which carries meaning. An allomorph is a non-distinctive realisation of a morpheme.

•   Morphology can further be divided into inflectional (concerned with the endings put on words) and derivational (involves the formation of new words).

•   Affixation is the process of attaching an inflection or, more generally, a bound morpheme to a word. This can occur at the beginning or end and occasionally in the middle of a word form.

•   Morphemes can be classified according to whether they are bound or free and furthermore lexical or grammatical.

•   Word formation processes can be either productive or lexicalised (non-productive). There are different types of word-formation such as compounding, zero derivation (conversion), back formation and clipping.

•   For any language the distinction between native and foreign elements in the lexicon is important. In English there are different affixes used here and stress also varies according to the historical source of words.

Syntax

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•   Syntax concerns the possible arrangements of words in a language. The basic unit is the sentence which minimally consists of a main clause (containing at least a subject and predicate). Nouns and verbs are the major categories and combine with various others, such as adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, etc. to form more complex sentences.
•   Linguists often distinguish between a level on which the unambiguous semantic structure of a sentence is represented, formerly referred to as deep structure, and the actual form of a sentence, previously called surface structure.
•   Sentence structure is normally displayed by means of a tree diagram which is intended to display the internal structure in a manner which is visually comprehensible. Such a diagram is not assumed to correspond to any encoding of language in the brain.
•   The term generation is used in formal linguistics to describe exhaustively the structure of sentences. Whether it also refers to the manner in which speakers actually produce sentences, from the moment of having an idea to saying a sentence, is a very different question and most linguists do not make any such claim.
•   Universal grammar represents an attempt to specify what structural elements are present in all languages, i.e. what is their common grammatical core, and to derive means for describing these adequately.
•   Language would appear to be organised modularly. Thus syntax is basically independent of phonology, for instance, though there is an interface between these two levels of language.
The purpose of analysing the internal structure of sentences is
   1)   to reveal the hierarchy in the ordering of elements
   2)   to explain how surface ambiguities come about
   3)   to demonstrate the relatedness of certain sentences
Students should be aware of how syntax is acquired by young children.
Acquisition of syntax (greatly simplified)

Input	Language heard in child’s surroundings
Step 1	Abstraction of structures from actual sentences
Step 2	Internalisation of these structures as syntactic templates (unconscious knowledge)

What is Difference between Morphology and Syntax ?

Morphology is the study of morphemes, which are the smallest unit of meaning in a language. A morpheme can be one whole word or a prefix or suffix that is understood to change the meaning of the word and therefore takes on meaning itself. Morphology includes the concepts of inflection and derivation, which allow words to be made plural or for the tense of a word to be changed. The study of morphology attempts to understand how people use and understand the way that words work, in an attempt to understand the difference that one morpheme makes to many words and how words relate to each other.

Syntax and morphology are both important to the way that people derive meaning from language, but they are different in that syntax refers to the order and use of words, and morphology refers to the parts of words that create meaning. For example, it is possible to create a sentence that is grammatically correct, but that makes no sense to a speaker of the language. This is possible because syntax only governs the order of a sentence and not what the words in it mean. On the other hand, a combination of words may make sense when used together, but lose their meaning when rearranged in a way that violates the rules of syntax. Syntax and morphology are different but are dependent on each other.

What is Relationship between morphology and syntax ?

Morphology and syntax are independent of each other in their basis. Morphology researches forms, syntax researches the relationship between constituents. Therefore,  we should use different concepts for them. That is, we can say that English is nominative-accusative language even though it does not have accusative. In this case, we reserve accusative to the syntactic usage, whereas in most languages it is a morphological term. This indicates the distinctness of these fields.

However, in the reality of language, nothing is independent. Syntax requires words to have certain forms, and the usage of certain forms can require certain syntax. This is morphosyntax — where word forms and clausal level collide.

What is Euphemism?

 

A Euphemism is a polite inoffensive expression words or phrases replaced for one considered offensive or hurtful that contrarily might be considered bitter, blunt or unpleasant to hear. In short, the term euphemism refers to courteous, unintended expressions which is the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression that replace words and phrases considered harsh and disrespectful or which suggest something unpleasant. When the aim is not to offend or hurt someone with honest intentions. 

Possibly there is no other word in English for which there are more euphemisms than for the verb “to die.” When someone dies, we say he passed away, passed on or simply passed. Or he is in a better place now, gone on to his heavenly reward or as the doctor may have said just as the patient breathed his last breath. “She expired.”

Lets consider a few more Examples:

• Collateral damage instead of accidental deaths
• Use the rest room instead of go to the bathroom
• Between jobs instead of unemployed
• Domestic engineer instead of maid

Types of Euphemisms

 

To Soften an Expression - Some euphemisms are used to make a blunt or obnoxious truth seem less hard.
Examples:

• Passed away instead of died
• Differently-abled instead of handicapped or disabled
• Relocation center instead of prison camp
• Letting someone go instead of firing someone
• On the streets instead of homeless

Euphemisms to be Polite - Some euphemisms are used to take the place of words or phrases one might not want to say in polite circle.
Examples:

• Adult beverages instead of beer or liquor
• Big-boned instead of heavy or overweight
• Vertically-challenged instead of short
• Economical with the truth instead of liar
• Between jobs instead of unemployed

Euphemisms to be Impolite - euphemisms are intentionally a callous or insensitive way of saying something. These euphemisms are usually used when being sarcastic or trying to make light of a serious subject or make it seem less serious.
Example:

• Bit the dust instead of died
• Blow chunks instead of vomited
• Bit the farm instead of died

Examples of Euphemisms

 

Euphemism is frequently used in everyday life. Let us look at some common euphemism examples:

• Retarded - mentally challenged
• Blind - Visually challenged
• Crippled - Differently abled
• Bald - follicularly challenged
• Poor - economically marginalized
• Fat - gravitationally challenged, Overweight
• Lazy - motivationally deficient
• beggar - panhandler, homeless person
• coffin - casket
• old age - golden age, golden years
• criminal (adj) - illegal
• confinement - detention
• lawyer - attorney
• sick - indisposed, ill, under the weather
• toilet - john, WC, men's room, restroom, bathroom, washroom, lavatory

Euphemism in sentences:

• He is always tired and emotional (drunk). He is a special child (disabled or retarded).
• You are becoming a little thin on top (bald).
• Our teacher is in the family way (pregnant).
• We do not hire mentally challenged (stupid) people.
• The individual was accused of appropriating funds.
• Joey isn’t broke, he is having temporary negative cash flow.
• Sam isn't buying a used car, he is purchasing a pre-enjoyed or pre-loved vehicle.
• Dian's supervisor laid him off because he was unmotivated.
• Politicians don't commit crimes, they 'make mistakes.'
• I don't care if you keep smoking, you'll be the one pushing up the daisies at the age of 40, not me!
• Putting stray dogs to sleep is the most humane thing to do.

Lets consider Euphemisms for death and dying as an example:

a race well run	definitely done dancing	in a better place	feeling no pain	go west
departed	finished	at room temperature	get a one-way ticket	out of his/her misery
cross the bar	asleep	join the majority	bite the dust	kick the bucket
living-impaired	resting in peace	check out	pass away	no longer with us
meet his/her maker	wearing a toe tag	yield up the ghost	kick the oxygen habit	pushing up the daisies
six feet under	with the angels	terminated	call home	final curtain call

Techniques for Creating Euphemism

Euphemism masks a rude or impolite expression but conveys the concept clearly and politely. Several techniques are employed to create euphemism.

• It may be in the form of abbreviations e.g. B.O. (body odor), W.C. (toilet) etc.
• Foreign words may be used to replace an impolite expression e.g. faux (fake), or faux pas (foolish error) etc.
• Sometimes, they are abstractions e.g. before I go (before I die).
• They may also be indirect expressions replacing direct ones which may sound offensive e.g. rear-end, unmentionables etc.
• Using longer words or phrases can also mask unpleasant words e.g. flatulence for farting, perspiration for sweat, mentally challenged for stupid etc.
• Using technical terms may reduce the rudeness exhibited by words e.g. gluteus maximus.
• Deliberately mispronouncing an offensive word may reduce its severity e.g. darn, shoot etc.

Euphemism Examples in Everyday Life

Euphemism is frequently used in everyday life. Let us look at some common euphemism examples:

• You are becoming a little thin on top (bald).
• Our teacher is in the family way (pregnant).
• He is always tired and emotional (drunk).
• We do not hire mentally challenged (stupid) people.
• He is a special child (disabled or retarded).

Examples of Euphemism in Literature

Example #1

Examples of euphemism referring to sex are found in William Shakespeare’s “Othello” and “Antony and Cleopatra”. In “Othello”, Act 1 Scene 1, Iago tells Brabantio:

“I am one, sir, that comes to tell you your daughter and the Moor are now making the beast with two backs.”

Here, the expression “making the beast with two backs” refers to the act of having sex.
Similarly, we notice Shakespeare using euphemism for sexual intercourse in his play “Antony and Cleopatra”. In Act 2 Scene 2, Agrippa says about Cleopatra:

“Royal wench!
She made great Caesar lay his sword to bed.
He plowed her, and she cropped.”

The word “plowed” refers to the act of sexual intercourse and the word “cropped” is a euphemism for becoming pregnant.

Example #2

John Donne in his poem “The Flea” employs euphemism. He says:

“Mark but this flea, and mark in this,
How little that which thou denies me is;
It suck’d me first, and now sucks thee,
And in this flea our two bloods mingled be.
Thou know’st that this cannot be said
A sin, nor shame, nor loss of maidenhead;
Yet this enjoys before it woo,
And pamper’d swells with one blood made of two;
And this, alas! is more than we would do.”

In order to persuade his beloved to sleep with him, the speaker in the poem tells her how a flea bit both of them and their blood got mixed in it. This is a euphemism.

Example #3

“The Squealer”, a character in George Orwell’s “Animal Farm”, uses euphemisms to help “the pigs” achieve their political ends. To announce the reduction of food to the animals of the farm, Orwell quotes him saying:

“For the time being,” he explains, “it had been found necessary to make a readjustment of rations.”

Substituting the word “reduction” with “readjustment” was an attempt to suppress the complaints of other animals about hunger. It works because reduction means “cutting” food supply while readjustment implies changing the current amount of food.

Function of Euphemism

Euphemism helps writers to convey those ideas which have become a social taboo and are too embarrassing to mention directly. Writers skillfully choose appropriate words to refer to and discuss a subject indirectly which otherwise are not published due to strict social censorship e.g. religious fanaticism, political theories, sexuality, death etc. Thus, euphemism is a useful tool that allows writers to write figuratively about the libelous issues.


Here are some particularly amusing examples, except where downright offensive.

1. If you are offered a career change or an early retirement opportunity, a career or employee transition, or you are being involuntarily separated, or if personnel is being realigned or there is a surplus reduction in personnel, or the staff is being re-engineered or right sized, or if there is a workforce imbalance correction then: You’re fired!

(Cartoon by Kipper Williams)

2. You aren’t poor, you are economically disadvantaged.
3. You aren’t broke, you have temporary negative cash flow.
4. You do not live in a slum but in substandard housing, or in an economically depressed neighborhood, or culturally deprived environment.
5. If you are managing company stakeholders, that means you are lobbying, which is really the same as bribing.
6. When you get an unwanted phone call just as you are sitting down to dinner from a representative of the Republican party (and you are a Democrat) or vice versa, this is called a courtesy call. Only courtesy has nothing to do with it, it’s just freaking annoying.





7. In light of the recent demise of Osama bin Laden, several politicians have stressed that it was the enhanced interrogation methods which caused the informants to squeal and give up the nickname of the courier, which we then followed around until he led us to the compound of OBL. This is one of my personal favorites, not the process it refers to of course, but the absolute ludicrousness of this particular phrase. The ultimate of euphemism. It’s torture, folks! Torture, and you can’t sugarcoat it, and you can’t make it sound nice. Torture.
8. Since we’ve been involved in two wars for ten years, stuff happens, stuff that we don’t want to happen. When you come into a country and break it, for a variety of good reasons, you might cause some collateral damage, which are really deaths of civilians. Women and children and old people. Accidental death. Accidental – but you can’t quite escape the “death” part.
9. When a geographical area is neutralized or depopulated that means the CIA killed people, just because.



10. On a lighter note, intelligent ventilation points, when speaking of a garment are – armholes!

Symbols

Communication is preeminently symbolic. There are two major categories of signals people send: signs and symbols. Signs are the foundation of all communication. A sign designates something other than itself, and meaning is the link between an object or idea and a sign (Littlejohn 64). These primary ideas link together an astoundingly wide set of theories administering with symbols, language, discourse, and nonverbal forms, ideas that elucidate how signs are affiliated to their meanings and how signs are disposed. The study of signs is commonly referred to as semiotics.

Charles Sauders Peirce, founder of modern semiotics, defined semiosis as a relationship among a sign, an object, and a meaning. The sign is a natural event that has a direct, inherent connection with what it represents. Pierce accredited to the representation of an object by a sign as the interpretant. For example, a blush is a sign of individual unease called embarrassment, and a bear track in the woods is a sign that a bear has passed. The word embarrassment or thought that a bear has passed is not the word or thought, but the association you make (the interpretant) links the two. All three elements are required in an irreducible triad in order for signs to operate (Littlejohn 64). This three-part connection is distinctly represented in a renowned model produced by C.K. Ogden and I. A. Richards.

Signs and Symbols

¡  A sign is something we directly encounter, yet at the same time it refers to something else. Thunder is a sign of rain. A punch in the nose is a sign of anger. An arrow is a sign of whatever it points toward.

¡  Words are also signs, but of a special kind. They are symbols. Unlike the examples cited above, most symbols have no natural connection with the things they describe. There’s nothing in the sound of the word kiss or anything visual in the letters h-u-g that signifies an embrace. One could just as easily coin the term snarf or clag to symbolize a close encounter of the romantic kind.

Symbolism is the practice or art of using an object or a word to represent an abstract idea. An action, person, place, word, or object can all have a symbolic meaning. When an author wants to suggest a certain mood or emotion, he can also use symbolism to hint at it, rather than just blatantly saying it.

Symbolism in Literature 

Symbolism is often used by writers to enhance their writing. Symbolism can give a literary work more richness and color and can make the meaning of the work deeper.
In literature, symbolism can take many forms including:

• A figure of speech where an object, person, or situation has another meaning other than its literal meaning. 
• The actions of a character, word, action, or event that have a deeper meaning in the context of the whole story.  

Metaphors As Symbolism

A metaphor is a figure of speech that uses symbolism.

• It compares two things that are not similar and shows that they actually do have something in common.  
• In a metaphor, there is an additional meaning to a word. This makes it an example of symbolism.

Examples of symbolism that take the form of metaphors include:

• Time is money: This is symbolic because it warns you that when you spend your time, you are giving up the opportunity to be doing something else with that time (just as when you spend your money, you give up your chance to do something else with the money). Further, like money, time is not infinite. 
• Life is a roller-coaster: This is symbolic because it indicates that there will be ups and downs in life that you have to weather.  
• He is a rock: This is symbolic because it signifies that he is strong and dependable. 
• Love is a jewel: This is symbolic because it suggests that love is rare and pressure. 

Allegory As Symbolism

Sometimes symbolism takes the form of a literary tool called an allegory. Allegory is an extended use of symbolism and metaphors. A story, a poem, or even a whole book can be an allegory and the symbolism will permeate throughout.
One example of an allegory is the monologue from Shakespeare in “As You Like It.”

“All the world's a stage,And all the men and women merely players;they have their exits and their entrances;And one man in his time plays many parts,” 

This is symbolic of the fact that people are putting on a show and that they play many roles over the course of their lives.

Symbolism in Poetry

Many poets used symbolism to deepen the meaning of their poems. Here is an excerpt from William Blake's “Ah Sunflower.” In it, Blake refers to life cycle and uses sunflowers to represent humankind and that they desire everlasting life.

“Ah Sunflower, weary of time, Who countest the steps of the sun; Seeking after that sweet golden clime Where the traveler’s journey is done;” 

Symbolism in Everyday Life 

Our language contains an immense number of symbols whose intended meaning or significance is well-known and accepted by the majority. Of course, many of these do wind up in books, magazines, stories, and other written works.
Symbolism is found in colors:

• Black is used to represent death or evil.
• White stands for life and purity.
• Red can symbolize blood, passion, danger, or immoral character.
• Purple is a royal color.
• Yellow stands for violence or decay.
• Blue represents peacefulness and calm. 

Symbolic Objects

Objects are often used to symbolize something else:

• A chain can symbolize the coming together of two things.
• A ladder can represent the relationship between heaven and earth or ascension.
• A mirror can denote the sun but when it is broken, it can represent an unhappy union or a separation. 

Flowers as Symbols

Even flowers can have a symbolism:

• Roses stand for romance.
• Violets represent shyness.
• Lilies stand for beauty and temptation.
• Chrysanthemums represent perfection.

Symbolism, as you see, can be found almost anywhere. Any time there is something that represents more than its literal meaning, this can be an example of symbolism.

this is example image about the symbolism

REFERENCEReference

(Extension) is the relation between the linguistic expression and the entity it denotes in the realworld. For example when you say Jack you refer to the person whose name is Jack.

Referent 

is the concrete object or concept that is designed by a word or expression. For example;



 

Princess Diana is the referent of Rose of England.The relationship between Princess Diana and Rose of England is called reference.

Co-reference

is the relationship between two noun phrases that refer to same entity. For example;



 

Mark Twain and Samuel Langhorne Clemens are co-referential as they refer to same person.



 

The morning star and the evening star are co-referential because they both refer to Venus.

 Antecedent 

is a noun phrase with which a pronoun is co-referential. For example;

The young boy

watched the bluebird until

he

saw the babies.

Antecedent of pronoun “he”

 

The man who

is eating bit 

himself 

.

Antecedent of pronoun “himself”